Rice Farming in Odisha - Rice Based Cropping Systems

Rice in Odisha is synonymous with food, as is agriculture with rice. Rice covers about 69% of the cultivated area, covering about 63% area under food grains. In the 1950s Odisha was a leading rice-producing state in the country and it used to supply a sizable amount of rice grain to the central pool of food stocks. But, the situation was strongly reversed in the post-high-yielding variety (HYV) period. Average rice yield in Odisha increased from less than a ton/ha in 2000-01 to 2.35 t/ha in 2021-22. With an area of 39.5 lakh ha (kharif + rabi), Odisha produced 138 lakh tons of paddy or about 92 lakh tons of rice during 2021-22. Annual variation due to weather aberrations can bring down this by about 4-5 lakh tons of rice. Odisha needs about 68 lakh tons of rice for its 4.63 crores population (including consumption, seed, feed and wastage) and hence there is a surplus of rice in recent years. The state contributed 9.5% of the requirement of rice to the central pool during 2022-23. Odisha’s share in the country’s rice production was more than 11% in the pre-HYV period, which gradually declined to 7.9% in 2008-09. This is mainly due to the substantial increase in yield from the irrigated belts of the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the southern states.

In Odisha, rice is grown under diverse ecosystems and a wide range of climatic conditions. The immense diversity in growth conditions makes classification and characterization of the rice environments a challenging task. But, classification of rice land on the basis of some dominant factors that influence rice productivity is essential to make variety development and formulation of a package of practices for crop management more problem oriented.

Rice in Odisha is classified into seven different ecosystems: irrigated kharif (27.4%), rainfed upland (19.1%), medium land (12.4%), shallow lowland (22.5%), semi-deep (7.9%), deep (3.4%), and irrigated rabi (7.4%). Farmers have their own system of classification of rice environments such as uplands, medium lands, and lowlands, primarily on the basis of land topography and water regime.

The farmers identified varieties fairly well adapted to different classes of land situations and also developed appropriate cultural practices. Rice researchers nationally and internationally redefined the farmers’ system of classification on the basis of water available to the rice crop and quantified water depth during the major part of the life cycle of the crop. Although a broad classification of rice ecosystems in Odisha has been mentioned, the district-wise kharif paddy coverage of the state reveals that uplands, medium lands, and lowlands constitute 25.3%, 38.8%, and 35.9% of the rice area, respectively

Age-old social customs and festivals in Odisha have strong relevance to different phases of rice cultivation: Akhyatrutiya in April-May marks the seeding of rice, Rajasankranti in mid-June marks the completion of sowing, Garbhanasankranti in October symbolizes the reproductive phase of rice, while Nuakhaee and Laxmipuja coincide with the harvesting of upland and lowland rice, respectively. Makarsankranti in mid-January is celebrated as Chaita Parab by the tribal people as by this time rice is threshed and brought to the granary.

The Jeypore tract in South Odisha has been identified as a putative secondary center of origin of cultivated rice (Ramiah and Ghose 1951, Ramiha and Rao 1953). The regions comprising western Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh are recognized as the center of origin of only aus ecotypes of rice (Sharma et al 2000).

Crop management and systems of cultivation of rice in Odisha

Rice-growing conditions largely influence the system of cultivation. The system of cultivation is determined by the land situation, soil type, class of rice, season, intensity and distribution of rainfall, irrigation resources, and availability of labor (Nayak and Garnayak 2005). Odisha has three systems of rice cultivation: dry, semi-dry, and wet. The dry system accounts for 18% of the rice area and the rest is shared by semi-dry and wet systems (Pani and Patra 2004).

Dry system of cultivation

The dry system of rice cultivation is followed in rainfed uplands, which are characterized by aerobic soil and in which no attempt is made to impound water. The land is prepared several times in summer to obtain the desired tilth and the crop depends on rainfall for its water requirement. Despite several advantages of line sowing, upland rice is usually sown by broadcasting using a high seed rate (100-120 kg/ha) with early-maturing and very early maturing varieties before the onset of monsoon. The seeds are then covered by plowing the land lightly with a country plow or working with a cultivator and are left as such with the miniature ridges and furrows formed in the process of covering the seeds. These miniature furrows act as small drainage channels to carry away the heavy rainwater quickly, but slow enough to not cause soil erosion. In some areas, laddering is done after covering the seeds to compact the soil, which facilitates the availability of subsoil moisture for germination of seeds lying at different depths. In a broadcast crop, the field is cross-plowed on the third day of sowing to destroy germinating weed seeds, break the soil crust, redistribute the seeds, and facilitate aeration and loss of excess moisture. This type of blind tillage is called “mendha” in Odisha. Two weeks after germination, mechanical weeding is done by using a country harrow (known as a “bida” in Odisha) in sunny weather. Agronomic studies over the years indicated that, in uplands, seeding in lines at a depth of 4-6 cm was effective in raising a rice crop with a good stand and, in a line-sown crop, the interspace is worked with a rake weeder or hoe and weeds are removed from the rows by hand. Weeds are also controlled by using preemergence herbicides such as butachlor or thiobencarb. Application of a recommended dose of fertilizers and need-based plant protection measures can maximize the yield of rice in rainfed uplands.

Semi-dry system of cultivation

The semi-dry system of rice cultivation is usually followed in rainfed medium and shallow lowlands. Under this system, the field is prepared and seeded dry. The crop is treated as a dry crop for 1 to 1 1/2 months after seeding and then treated as a wet crop after the monsoon becomes intense. Sowing is usually done in May-June using a seed rate of 80-100 kg/ha. When the crop is 4 to 6 weeks old, cross-plowing is done with a light (worn-out) country plow in 5-10 cm of standing water once or twice depending upon the density of weeds and crop stand. This operation is called “beushen” in Odisha. Following this operation, the crop is weeded, thinned, and gaps are filled with the uprooted seedlings, which is called “Khelua.” In some areas, Khelua is done immediately after beushening whereas in other areas it is done a week or 10 days after beushening. The beushening process helps in weed control and improves the aeration of soil. It can be pointed out that beushening, while controlling weeds to a considerable extent, reduces the crop stand to a submarginal level and is one of the reasons for the low productivity of direct-seeded rice in Odisha. This practice can be overcome by seeding the crop in line and doing interculture in between the rows. Maintenance of an optimum plant population, soil test-based fertilizer application, judicious water management, and need-based plant protection can improve productivity in the semi-dry system of rice cultivation. In lowlands, a well-managed rice crop involving dry seeding plus beushening is as good as one using transplanting. To maintain the plant population, beushening is to be followed by khelua, preferably with seedlings raised in the nursery on about one-tenth of the area of the same piece of land. In a beushened crop, all P can be applied at the time of seeding or at the time of beushening along with all K and one-half N; the remaining one-half N is to be applied 30 days later. In lowlands, planting of aged seedlings (50 to 60 days old) is more remunerative under adverse soil conditions or postflood situations.

Wet system of cultivation

In this cultivation system, rice is grown as a wet crop in tracts that have an assured supply of water. The field is brought to a soft puddled condition by repeated plowing with 5-7 cm of standing water. After getting the requisite puddles, rice seedlings raised in a nursery can be transplanted or sprouted seeds can be directly sown. Transplanting is usually carried out by a random method using 3-4-week-old seedlings.Hand weeding is done once or twice depending upon the weed population. Chemical weed control is also popular in many areas where the wet system of rice cultivation is advocated. Efficient water management, soil test-based balanced fertilizer application, and need-based plant protection measures can improve the productivity of this system in rice significantly. It has been shown that wet seeding or direct seeding of sprouted seeds on puddled soil gives as much yield as a transplanted crop, but it is not usually advocated. The cultural practices of wet seeding are similar to those of a transplanted crop. However, the wetseeding method is adopted as a contingent measure when there is a shortage of seedlings, especially in postflood situations (Pani and Patra 2004).

Constraints to Rice Production in Odisha

The annual productivity gain for rice in Odisha was only 24 kg/ha during the last 35 years. This is mainly due to the concentration of rainfed area under rice in the region, which constrains the adoption of available technology, and a lack of dependable market support, which makes the cropping and associated technology used in the production process nearly uneconomical.

Biophysical constraints

Frequent occurrence of floods and droughts

The plateau regions, that is, the southern and western parts of Odisha, are prone to drought while the coastal districts are prone to flood with saline water inundation into the cultivated area in the coastal belts. Farming communities experience drought once in three to four years due to scanty and erratic rainfall. A loss of 1.9 million tons and 1.77 million tons of paddy occurred during 1982-83 and 1987-88, respectively, in the state due to severe moisture stress. Similarly, during 1992-93 and 2002-03, dry spells resulted in estimated crop loss varying from 35% to 50% due to drought and erratic rainfall. Therefore, the average rise in productivity of rice in the state is estimated to be only 24 kg/ha. It is therefore suggested to do research not only on varietal improvement but also on the refinement of existing production technologies suitable for rainfed areas to combat moisture stress in drought years. Frequent floods in the coastal regions of the state lead to waterlogging, submergence, and siltation, thus causing maximum damage to crops of the state. The coastal deltaic alluvial plains comprising the districts of Cuttack, Puri, Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapara, Jajpur, Jagatsinghpur, and Ganjam are most vulnerable to floods and salinity, affecting 380,000 hectares in Odisha.

Poor irrigated commands and low and imbalanced fertilizer use

Nearly 35% of the total rice area in the state is irrigated and, in the irrigated commands, rice productivity is only 2.8-3.4 t/ha. Farmers apply only 50-60% of the recommended dose of fertilizer in irrigated rice and 25-30% of the recommended dose in rainfed rice. The application of NPK fertilizer in the wet season in an irrigated district such as Puri is 2.93:0.44:1.0 and in a rainfed district such as Mayurbhanj is 5.3:1.6:1.0, which is imbalanced. The low productivity in this favorable ecosystem is due to low and imbalanced input use and therefore 50% of the potential yield of high-yielding varieties grown in these areas is not realized, causing a loss in productivity.

Soil problems

The major soils of Odisha are predominantly red and yellow laterite and lateritic soils. The soils are highly leached, low in exchangeable base and acidic, and low in organic matter and in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Soil texture varies from sandy, sandy loam, and loamy to clayey depending on the topography. In the higher reaches, soils are coarse textured and highly drought prone.

Technological constraints

Lack of technology options for varied rainfall situations

Farmers do not have much flexibility in making management adjustments in rice cropping due to the frequent occurrence of drought and erratic rainfall regarding choice of variety, sowing time, and method of crop establishment. Farmers mostly follow a standard set of practices even under the occurrence of drought, flood, and irregular rainfall. This fixed set of technology does not meet their needs during changing climatic situations such as delayed monsoon, early drought, and continuation of stress for a longer period, resulting in poor yield

Delay in sowing/transplanting

This is the major cause of low yield in the state and sowing and transplanting are delayed due to fluctuation in the onset of monsoon, erratic rainfall, and poor infrastructure. Delayed sowing of upland rice and transplanting of paddy after the third week of July adversely affect yield even with proper crop management practices. Infrastructure development in irrigation, transportation, and electricity is inadequate and not that effective; in fact, the shortage of electricity and efficient farm laborers is acute and this causes delays in farm operations such as seeding, transplanting, and intercultural operations associated with rice cultivation.

Continuance in rice-rice cropping systems

The rice-rice cropping system in irrigated commands deteriorates the physical condition of soil, encourages physiological disorders, and creates problems of multinutrient deficiencies such as phosphorus, zinc, and sulfur, thus causing a decline in factor productivity in rice. Rice-based cropping sequences in different ecosystems such as rice-horsegram/blackgram/greengram in uplands, rice-mustard/Bengalgram/blackgram/lentil/greengram in medium lands, and rice-Bengalgram/blackgram in lowlands will not only increase rice productivity but also improve the physical condition of soil.

Institutional constraints

Lack of research-extension linkage

The lack of proper researchextension linkage is the cause of the low adoption of improved technologies, which tends to constrain the yield of rice. It is desirable to provide location-specific research support emerging from the Regional Agricultural Research Stations to the farming community and implement the newly developed technologies at the farm level by extension workers to enhance and sustain the productivity of rice. However, the regional research system is becoming weak and has poor or no linkage with the extension setup.

Inadequate credit facilities

As 65% of the total rice area is rainfed, rice is mainly grown as a rainfed crop and is mostly dependent on monsoon rainfall. Returns from crop cultivation are not assured and this ultimately affects the repaying capacity of the farmers. Therefore, credit institutions are not encouraged to extend credit support to farmers for implementing modern rice production technologies for increasing production and productivity of rice in the state. It is found that the availability of credit is only Rs.1,269/ha in Odisha compared with Rs.5,340/ha at the national level and Rs.5,353/ha in Andhra Pradesh (Naik et al 2008). The poor credit delivery system is one of the main causes of the low productivity of rice.

Non-availability of seeds and fertilizers

The lack of timely availability of quality seeds and fertilizers is another factor limiting higher productivity. Seed replacement of rice in Odisha is only 6-7%. More than 50% of the farmers use their own seeds, which they grow for 10-15 years with low genetic potential. The use of fertilizer is lower in Odisha than in other regions of the country. Thus, the use of genetically poor-quality seeds and the application of a suboptimal level of fertilizer fail to realize the genetic potential of the high-yielding varieties grown in the region. The formal arrangement of seed production strategies for supplying quality seeds to farmers is not adequate and has not met the requirements of even 25-30% of the farmers.

Socio-economic constraints

Small and fragmented land holdings

Due to continuous fragmentation of landholdings, almost 70% of the rural households have holding sizes of less than a hectare. A majority of the rural households (about 82%) are small or marginal farmers or landless agricultural laborers and resource poor. Thus, they are unable to adopt modern rice production technologies such as high-yielding varieties, quality seeds, recommended doses of fertilizers and pesticides, and the use of agricultural implements for increasing productivity in rice.

Concentration of poverty

Rural poverty and rural indebtedness are the highest among the small and marginal group of households. About 48% of the rice farmers in Odisha are below the poverty line and are resource poor. Absent landlordism is rampant and involves mostly the so-called high-caste households that coincidently have the most productive agricultural lands. They commonly put their lands into sharecropping, which is not conducive to high productivity.

Poor credit-market-technology linkage

Farmers usually fail to recover the cost of paddy production in the existing market infrastructure. Because of the poor procurement strategies of government organizations, farmers depend on traders and are exploited by mill owners to sell their marketable surplus at prices less than the minimum support price. A majority of farmers in rainfed areas are resource poor and do not have the ability to avail of institutional credit. They grow traditional rice varieties to overcome the risk associated with rainfed rice farming, resulting in low productivity of rice. Thus, the poor performance of agriculture is the major cause of the low credit-deposit ratio in the state. This situation results in a poor credit flow to agriculture and per hectare credit in Odisha is lower than in other states of the country. Therefore, the lack of dependable market support, poor flow of credit to agriculture, and non-adoption of modern rice production technology, that is, lack of credit-market-technology linkage, is the cause of low rice productivity in Odisha.

Constraints in different ecosystems

Rainfed rice ecosystem

Rainfed upland ecosystem

• Erratic and often inadequate rainfall and lack of facilities for moisture conservation and life-saving irrigation.
• Fragile and impoverished soils with poor soil fertility.
• Soil erosion leading to losses of soil, nutrients, and moisture.
• Soil acidity leading to aluminum saturation, phosphate fixation, and aluminum and manganese toxicity.
• Iron chlorosis in alkaline/calcareous soils.
• Poor land preparation and stand establishment; low plant population due to direct seeding.
• Severe weed competition, intermittent drought, and inadequate use of fertilizer.
• Lack of suitable variety with resistance to moisture stress and seed dormancy and continued use of traditional
• Low-yielding varieties.
• Pest and disease problems such as blast, leaf spot, gundhi bug, and stem borer.

Deep water rice

• Traditional monocropping with long fallow periods.
• Lack of appropriate HYVs possessing tolerance of submergence and elongation ability with rising water levels and built-in resistance to stem borer and sheath blight.
• Delayed sowing and poor stand establishment due to high seedling and higher tiller mortality.
• Inadequate and improper use of fertilizer.
• Severe incidence of stem borer and Ufra nematodes, damage due to crabs during flooding, and rat damage at various stages of crop growth.

Shallow lowland irrigated ecosystem

Timely seeding/transplanting and intercultural operations, particularly weeding.
Better variety-input management.
Integrated pest management with resistant varieties as the key component.
The use of quality seeds of recommended varieties.

Irrigated ecosystem

1.55 million hectares (35%) of the total rice area in Odisha are under the irrigated ecosystem, where double cropping of rice is possible.
This ecosystem is mainly irrigated by gravity flow from the canal system. A sizable part of the rabi rice lands is watered by lift irrigation from rivers, tanks, and dug Wells.
Irrigated kharif rice covers bunded uplands, medium lands, and lowlands.
In kharif, irrigation is mainly protective in nature. Uncontrolled irrigation in lowlands in kharif often aggravates the problem of waterlogging and soil health and adversely affects rice production.
The major problem limiting rice yield in the irrigated ecosystem is crop loss due to high incidence of insect pests such as yellow stem borer, brown planthopper, and whitebacked planthopper and diseases such as bacterial leaf blight and sheath rot.
A number of high-yielding rice varieties combining high yield potential plus multiple resistance are available. High-yielding photo-insensitive varieties with maturity duration of 110-125 days in the dry season and 120-135 days in the wet season are ideal in this ecosystem.
Average productivity is 3.0 t/ha and seeds of modern rice varieties, fertilizer, water, and pest control technologies with concomitant input supplies have enabled farmers to achieve a substantial yield increase.
One of the major constraints to rabi rice cultivation is a delay in the availability of canal water.

Strategies to enhance rice production

Rainfed uplands

Encouraging the present trend among farmers for shifting from rice to crops such as groundnut, soybean, sesamum, etc., or to rice-based mixed cropping.
Development/scaling of suitable machinery for line seeding (multi-crop seed drills) and mechanical weeding.
Use of herbicides to control weeds effectively.
Land shaping (bunding, terracing, and leveling) to conserve rainwater and to reduce drought hazard.
Development of semi-tall high-yielding varieties with early seedling vigor and tolerance of intermittent moisture stress.

Rainfed medium and lowlands

Timely seeding/transplanting and intercultural operations, particularly weeding. Better variety-input management.
Use of quality seeds of recommended varieties.
Development and use of farm implements to reduce drudgery and enhance income through value-added products in rice.
Development of efficient postharvest technology and integrated farming system (subsistence monoculture to diverse commercialized system).

Irrigated ecosystems

Yield in terms of paddy (not milled) in irrigated lands is still low, about 3.0 t/ha in kharif and 3.5 t/ha in rabi, that is, only 50% of the potential yield has been exploited in spite of the availability of suitable varieties and an appropriate package of practices.
Better variety-input management and suitable water management can raise productivity considerably. Increasing production by growing hybrid rice varieties with higher yield potential.
Increasing input-use efficiency and factor productivity while securing environmental quality (ICM, SRI) Integrated pest management (IPM) with resistant varieties as the key component.
Integrated nutrient management (INM) of both organic and inorganic fertilizer for enhanced rice production.